The assumptions and limitations of abnormality

The assumptions and limitations of abnormality Abnormality, as defined by Eysenck and Flanagan (2000), means deviating from what is normal or usual. This definition is straightforward; however, it is not that easy to define normality (conforming to a standard). There are four ways which we can establish standard; the first way is through statistics, which means statistical infrequency. It is the idea that certain behaviours are statistically rare in the population, an example of this is the tendency for someone to have a high level of anxiety (trait anxiety). The mean score, when studied by Spielbergers State-Trait anxiety inventory, is when statistical scores show deviation from those of the majority or normal distribution and they are regarded as abnormal. The second approach is deviation from social norms. It is the impact of an individual behaviour on others. This is when we deviate or fail to respect social norms. Social norms come from values and identify behaviours, any deviation is considered as abnormal. An example is the case study of Sarah, a case of agoraphobia. She was in her mid-thirties, and without warning and without knowing why, she suddenly felt anxious and dizzy while she was shopping in a crowded department store. This happened again when she decided to shopping a few days later. After this she avoided going to the large stores or even smaller ones. Sarah behaviour was abnormal in many ways. (Adapted from J.D. Stirling J.S.E. Hellewell, 1990, Psychopathology, London: Routledge.). A third approach is the failure to function adequately. This is when some individuals fail to cope with day to day life. It can lead to depression, inability to sleep, taking time off from work and lack of motivation. Societies have expectations of how people should behave, and those individuals who cannot meet such obligations are considered as not functioning adequately. The fourth approach is ideal mental health. It relates abnormality to lack of contended existence, and consider it as deviation from ideal mental health. Psychologist Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, see self-actualisation as realising ones potential as ideal mental health. Rogers (1959) thinks that receiving unconditional love leads to a healthy psychological development as well as to a high self-esteem and self acceptance. Model in psychopathology is referred to as an explanation of the causes of psychological disorders. First of the four models is medical model (also known as biological model). It is a view of abnormality that sees mental disorders as being caused by genetic and biochemical factors. It is seen as illness or disease. The second view is that of the psychodynamic model. It sees abnormal behaviour as being caused by underlying (hidden and significant) psychological forces of which an individual is probably unaware. The third is the behavioural model. It views abnormal behaviour as maladaptive (poorly adapted). It sees it as learned responses in the environment of which we can replace by more adaptive behaviours. The fourth and last, is the cognitive model. It is a view that stresses the role of cognitive problems, i.e. illogical (unreasonable) or irrational thought processes in abnormal functioning. There are difficulties in defining normality in relation to statistical frequency. In terms of trait anxiety, it is expected to find a normal distribution of that trait within any population. Most people cluster (statistically significant subset) around the mean score whiles just only few individuals scoring very high or very low. A high score on trait anxiety would be considered as abnormal and so equally a low score on trait anxiety would be statistically abnormal. However, a low susceptibility (tendency to be affected) to anxiety hardly indicates clinical abnormality, rather, it is quite desirable. Statistical abnormality does not permit us to identify what behaviour requires treatment. It overlooks the important issue of desirability. Some statistically abnormal behaviour is undesirable, i.e. high trait of anxiety, whereas other statistically abnormal behaviour is quite desirable, such as low anxiety or genius. There is also a problem in deciding how much behaviour must deviate from the norm in other to be considered normal, an example is height. The same standard or norms may not apply to people in different age groups or different cultures. In terms of anxiety, what is normal for adults is not normal for children. Also, what is normal in one country may not be normal behaviour in another country. The numbers of problems associated with deviating from social norms are large. First, it is related to moral standard that is subjectively (opinions or feelings) defined by a society, and it changes over time. An example is Britain, where until recently it was not acceptable to have a child out of marriage. Another example is Russia, where in the 20th century; individuals opposed to the communist government were called dissidents (somebody who disagrees with an established political or religious system or organisation). Their attitudes were considered as symptoms of mental disorder, and were locked up in mental hospitals. Szasz (1960) suggested that the concept of mental is a myth (nonexistent), used by the state as means of control. The second problem is that social deviance is defined by the context in which behaviour occurs. Hence if you see someone wearing few clothes it would be acceptable on a beach but not in the high street. Cultural context is also important. For example, the Kwakiutl Indians engage in a ceremony in which they burn valuable blankets. But if someone in our society deliberately set fire on his or her valuable possessions they would be regarded very odd or mentally ill (Gleitman, 1986). People derive much of their pleasure in life from their interactions with other people. As a result, they find it important for a contented existence to avoid behaving in socially deviant ways that upset others. The main problem of the failure to function approach is that not all people who experience mental disorder are aware of their failure to function. For example, Schizophrenics often deny that they have problem. In cases like that, the problem is distressing to others, therefore others may judge that the individual is not functioning adequately and so may seek help on their behalf. It is easy to assess dysfunctional behaviour, such as using absenteeism (frequent absence) from work or number of rows with the spouse, as measures of the level of functioning. This approach is moderately tied to the social deviancy approach because it involves decisions about what is or is not acceptable. Failure to function has the advantage of recognising the subjective experience of the individual. However, such judgements are made by others and are influenced by social and cultural beliefs and biases. The advantage of ideal mental health approach is that it focuses on positive characteristics. On health rather than illness. However, the criteria used in assessing health (self-actualisation), are hard to define. They are abstract ideals and are related to our culture. Some societies dont feel that these are the ultimate aims for psychological health. They collectively strive for the good of the community. The second problem is the difficulty in measuring them. Health concept works well with respect to physical conditions because of the signs. The medical model is positive and clearly successful in some psychological conditions. An example is the condition Phenylketonuria (PKU), which is a cause of mental retardation, and it can be easily and effectively treated by physical means. This is an individual born with an inability to process the amino acid Phenylalanine. It is preventable if it is detected early. The medical model approach has the merit of being based on well-established sciences (medicine and biochemistry). Most mental disorders are caused by genetic factors, and drug therapies have often proved effective, either in treating the illness or reducing the symptoms. On the negative side, there is only a loose comparison between physical and mental illness. It is easier to establish the causes of most physical illnesses than mental ones, and the symptoms of mental disorders are more subjective than those of physical illnesses. It tells us little about the origin of Phobias. There is difficulty knowing whether any biological difference between individuals with a mental disorder and those without such disorder is a by-product of the disorder, rather than a direct cause. It has also being criticised for focusing too much on symptoms, and not enough on the patients experiences and internal processes. The role of psychological and social factor in explaining mental disorders is ignored. The application of medical principles is inappropriate if the symptoms of mental disorders (such as anxiety and isolation) are in psychological and social terms.

Second Foundation 3. Two Men and a Peasant

Rossem is one of those marginal worlds usually neglected in Galactic history and scarcely ever obtruding itself upon the notice of men of the myriad happier planets. In the latter days of the Galactic Empire, a few political prisoners had inhabited its wastes, while an observatory and a small Naval garrison served to keep it from complete desertion. Later, in the evil days of strife, even before the time of Hari Seldon, the weaker sort of men, tired of the periodic decades of insecurity and danger; weary of sacked planets and a ghostly succession of ephemeral emperors making their way to the Purple for a few wicked, fruitless years – these men fled the populated centers and sought shelter in the barren nooks of the Galaxy. Along the chilly wastes of Rossem, villages huddled. Its sun was a small ruddy niggard that clutched its dribble of heat to itself, while snow beat thinly down for nine months of the year. The tough native grain lay dormant in the soil those snow-filled months, then grew and ripened in almost panic speed, when the sun's reluctant radiation brought the temperature to nearly fifty. Small, goatlike animals cropped the grasslands, kicking the thin snow aside with tiny, tri-hooved feet. The men of Rossem had, thus, their bread and their milk – and when they could spare an animal – even their meat. The darkly ominous forests that gnarled their way over half of the equatorial region of the planet supplied a tough, fine-grained wood for housing. This wood, together with certain furs and minerals, was even worth exporting, and the ships of the Empire came at times and brought in exchange farm machinery, atomic heaters, even televisor sets. The last was not really incongruous, for the long winter imposed a lonely hibernation upon the peasant. Imperial history flowed past the peasants of Rossem. The trading ships might bring news in impatient spurts; occasionally new fugitives would arrive – at one time, a relatively large group arrived in a body and remained – and these usually had news of the Galaxy. It was then that the Rossemites learned of sweeping battles and decimated populations or of tyrannical emperors and rebellious viceroys. And they would sigh and shake their heads, and draw their fur collars closer about their bearded faces as they sat about the village square in the weak sun and philosophized on the evil of men. Then after a while, no trading ships arrived at all, and life grew harder. Supplies of foreign, soft food, of tobacco, of machinery stopped. Vague word from scraps gathered on the televisor brought increasingly disturbing news. And finally it spread that Trantor had been sacked. The great capital world of all the Galaxy, the splendid, storied, unapproachable and incomparable home of the emperors had been despoiled and ruined and brought to utter destruction. It was something inconceivable, and to many of the peasants of Rossem, scratching away at their fields, it might well seem that the end of the Galaxy was at hand. And then one day not unlike other days a ship arrived again. The old men of each village nodded wisely and lifted their old eyelids to whisper that thus it had been in their father's time – but it wasn't, quite. This ship was not an Imperial ship. The glowing Spaceship-and-Sun of the Empire was missing from its prow. It was a stubby affair made of scraps of older ships – and the men within called themselves soldiers of Tazenda. The peasants were confused. They had not heard of Tazenda, but they greeted the soldiers nevertheless in the traditional fashion of hospitality. The newcomers inquired closely as to the nature of the planet, the number of its inhabitants, the number of its cities – a word mistaken by the peasants to mean â€Å"villages† to the confusion of all concerned – its type of economy and so on. Other ships came and proclamations were issued all over the world that Tazenda was now the ruling world, that tax-collecting stations would be established girdling the equator – the inhabited region – that percentages of grain and furs according to certain numerical formulae would be collected annually. The Rossemites had blinked solemnly, uncertain of the word â€Å"taxes.† When collection time came, many had paid, or had stood by in confusion while the uniformed, other-wordlings loaded the harvested corn and the pelts on to the broad ground-cars. Here and there indignant peasants banded together and brought out ancient hunting weapons – but of this nothing ever came. Grumblingly they had disbanded when the men of Tazenda came and with dismay watched their hard struggle for existence become harder. But a new equilibrium was reached. The Tazendian governor lived dourly in the village of Gentri, from which all Rossemites were barred. He and the officials under him were dim otherworld beings that rarely impinged on the Rossemite ken. The tax-farmers, Rossemites in the employ of Tazenda, came periodically, but they were creatures of custom now – and the peasant had learned how to hide his grain and drive his cattle into the forest, and refrain from having his hut appear too ostentatiously prosperous. Then with a dull, uncomprehending expression he would greet all sharp questioning as to his assets by merely pointing at what they could see. Even that grew less, and taxes decreased, almost as If Tazenda wearied of extorting pennies from such a world. Trading sprang up and perhaps Tazenda found that more profitable. The men of Rossem no longer received in exchange the polished creations of the Empire, but even Tazendian machines and Tazendian food was better than the native stuff. And there were clothes for the women of other than gray home-spun, which was a very important thing. So once again, Galactic history glided past peacefully enough, and the peasants scrabbIed life out of the hard soil. Narovi blew into his beard as he stepped out of his cottage. The first snows were sifting across the hard ground and the sky was a dull, overcast pink. He squinted carefully upward and decided that no real storm was in sight. He could travel to Gentri without much trouble and get rid of his surplus grain in return for enough canned foods to last the winter. He roared back through the door, which he opened a crack for the purpose: â€Å"Has the car been fed its fuel, yunker?† A voice shouted from within, and then Narovi's oldest son, his short, red beard not yet completely outgrown its boyish sparseness, joined him. â€Å"The car,† he said, sullenly, â€Å"is fueled and rides well, but for the bad condition of the axles. For that I am of no blame. I have told you it needs expert repairs.† The old man stepped back and surveyed his son through lowering eyebrows, then thrust his hairy chin outward: â€Å"And is the fault mine? Where and in what manner may I achieve expert repairs? Has the harvest then been anything but scanty for five years? Have my herds escaped the pest? Have the pelts climbed of themselves-â€Å" â€Å"Narovi!† The well-known voice from within stopped him in mid-word. He grumbled, â€Å"Well, well – and now your mother must insert herself into the affairs of a father and his son. Bring out the car, and see to it that the storage trailers are securely attached.† He pounded his gloved hands together, and looked upward again. The dimly-ruddy clouds were gathering and the gray sky that showed in the rifts bore no warmth. The sun was hidden. He was at the point of looking away, when his dropping eyes caught and his finger almost automatically rose on high while his mouth fell open in a shout, in complete disregard of the cold air. â€Å"Wife,† he called vigorously, â€Å"Old woman – come here.† An indignant head appeared at a window. The woman's eyes followed his finger, gaped. With a cry, she dashed down the wooden stairs, snatching up an old wrap and a square of linen as she went. She emerged with the linen wrapped insecurely over her head and ears, and the wrap dangling from her shoulders. She snuffled: â€Å"It is a ship from outer space.† And Narovi remarked impatiently: â€Å"And what else could it be? We have visitors, old woman, visitors!† The ship was sinking slowly to a landing on the bare frozen field in the northern portions of Narovi's farm. â€Å"But what shall we do?† gasped the woman. â€Å"Can we offer these people hospitality? Is the dirt floor of our hovel to be theirs and the pickings of last week's hoecake?† â€Å"Shall they then go to our neighbors?† Narovi purpled past the crimson induced by the cold and his arms in their sleek fur covering lunged out and seized the woman's brawny shoulders. â€Å"Wife of my soul,† he purred, â€Å"you will take the two chairs from our room downstairs; you will see that a fat youngling is slaughtered and roasted with tubers; you will bake a fresh hoecake. I go now to greet these men of power from outer space†¦ and†¦ and-† He paused, placed his great cap awry, and scratched hesitantly. â€Å"Yes, I shall bring my jug of brewed grain as well. Hearty drink is pleasant.† The woman's mouth had flapped idly during this speech. Nothing came out. And when that stage passed, it was only a discordant screech that issued. Narovi lifted a finger, â€Å"Old woman, what was it the village Elders said a se'nnight since? Eh? Stir your memory. The Elders went from farm to farm – themselves! Imagine the importance of it! – to ask us that should any ships from outer space land, they were to be informed immediately on the orders of the governor. â€Å"And now shall I not seize the opportunity to win into the good graces of those in power? Regard that ship. Have you ever seen its like? These men from the outer worlds are rich, great. The governor himself sends such urgent messages concerning them that the Elders walk from farm to farm in the cooling weather. Perhaps the message is sent throughout all Rossem that these men are greatly desired by the Lords of Tazenda – and it is on my farm that they are landing.† He fairly hopped for anxiety, â€Å"The proper hospitality now – the mention of my name to the governor – and what may not be ours?† His wife was suddenly aware of the cold biting through her thin house-clothing. She leaped towards the door, shouting over her shoulders, â€Å"Leave then quickly.† But she was speaking to a man who was even then racing towards the segment of the horizon against which the ship sank. *** Neither the cold of the world, nor its bleak, empty spaces worried General Han Pritcher. Nor the poverty of their surroundings, nor the perspiring peasant himself. What did bother him was the question of the wisdom of their tactics? He and Channis were alone here. The ship, left in space, could take care of itself in ordinary circumstances, but still, he felt unsafe. It was Channis, of course, who was responsible for this move. He looked across at the young man and caught him winking cheerfully at the gap in the furred partition, in which a woman's peeping eyes and gaping mouth momentarily appeared. Channis, at least, seemed completely at ease. That fact Pritcher savored with a vinegary satisfaction. His game had not much longer to proceed exactly as he wished it. Yet, meanwhile their wrist ultrawave sender-receivers were their only connection with the ship. And then the peasant host smiled enormously and bobbed his head several times and said in a voice oily with respect, â€Å"Noble Lords, I crave leave to tell you that my eldest son – a good, worthy lad whom my poverty prevents from educating as his wisdom deserves – has informed me that the Elders will arrive soon. I trust your stay here has been as pleasant as my humble means – for I am poverty-stricken, though a hard-working, honest, and humble farmer, as anyone here will tell you – could afford.† â€Å"Elders?† said Channis, lightly. â€Å"The chief men of the region here?† â€Å"So they are, Noble Lords, and honest, worthy men all of them, for our entire village is known throughout Rossem as a just and righteous spot – though living is hard and the returns of the fields and forests meager. Perhaps you will mention to the Elders, Noble Lords, of my respect and honor for travelers and it may happen that they will request a new motor wagon for our household as the old one can scarcely creep and upon the remnant of it depends our livelihood.† He looked humbly eager and Han Pritcher nodded with the properly aloof condescension required of the role of â€Å"Noble, Lords† bestowed upon them. â€Å"A report of your hospitality shall reach the ears of your Elders.† Pritcher seized the next moments of isolation to speak to the apparently half-sleeping Channis. â€Å"I am not particularly fond of this meeting of the Elders,† he said. â€Å"Have you any thoughts on the subject?† Channis seemed surprised. â€Å"No. What worries you?† â€Å"It seems we have better things to do than to become conspicuous here.' Channis spoke hastily, in a low monotoned voice: â€Å"It may be necessary to risk becoming conspicuous in our next moves. We won't find the type of men we want, Pritcher, by simply reaching out a hand into a dark bag and groping. Men who rule by tricks of the mind need not necessarily be men in obvious power. In the first place, the psychologists of the Second Foundation are probably a very small minority of the total population, just as on your own First Foundation, the technicians and scientists formed a minority. The ordinary inhabitants are probably just that – very ordinary. The psychologists may even be well hidden, and the men in the apparently ruling position, may honestly think they are the true masters. Our solution to that problem may be found here on this frozen lump of a planet.† â€Å"I don't follow that at all.† â€Å"Why, see here, it's obvious enough. Tazenda is probably a huge world of millions or hundreds of millions. How could we identify the psychologists among them and be able to report truly to the Mule that we have located the Second Foundation? But here, on this tiny peasant world and subject planet, an the Tazendian rulers, our host informs us, are concentrated in their chief village of Gentri. There may be only a few hundred of them there, Pritcher, and among them must be one or more of the men of the Second Foundation. We will go there eventually, but let us see the Elders first – it's a logical step on the way.† They drew apart easily, as their black-bearded host tumbled into the room again, obviously agitated. â€Å"Noble Lords, the Elders are arriving. I crave leave to beg you once more to mention a word, perhaps, on my behalf-† He almost bent double in a paroxysm of fawning. â€Å"We shall certainly remember you,† said Channis. â€Å"Are these your Elders?† They apparently were. There were three. One approached. He bowed with a dignified respect and said: â€Å"We are honored. Transportation has been provided, Respected sirs, and we hope for the pleasure of your company at our Meeting Hall.† Third Interlude The First Speaker gazed wistfully at the night sky. Wispy clouds scudded across the faint stargleams. Space looked actively hostile. It was cold and awful at best but now it contained that strange creature, the Mule, and the very content seemed to darken and thicken it into ominous threat. The meeting was over. It had not been long. There had been the doubts and questionings inspired by the difficult mathematical problem of dealing with a mental mutant of uncertain makeup. All the extreme permutations had had to be considered. Were they even yet certain? Somewhere in this region of space – within reaching distance as Galactic spaces go – was the Mule. What would he do? It was easy enough to handle his men. They reacted – and were reacting – according to plan. But what of the Mule himself?

Sizes of the areas also differ

One of the few places on earth that has continued to fascinate people for centuries is the Bermuda Triangle. The Devil’s Triangle Vincent Gaddis, credited with putting the triangle â€Å"on the map† in a 1964 Argosy feature, described the triangle as extending from Florida to Bermuda, southwest to Puerto Rico and back to Florida through the Bahamas; while another author puts the apexes of the triangle somewhere in Virginia, on the western coast of Bermuda and around Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico (Rosenberg, 1974).Sizes of the areas also differ, with descriptions ranging from 500,000 to 1. 5 million square miles. The geography of the area is perplexing. The humid subtropical climate of the region brings it an annual heavy rainfall in excess of 60 inches (152 cm). Dangerous hurricanes and harsh thunderstorms occasionally drop 10 inches of rain within hours. The floor area of the region has also not been totally mapped out because it varies greatly in depth. The Florida coastline is shallow but farther off, the ground just sink to depths of thousands of feet.About 100 miles north of Puerto Rico is the deepest part of the Atlantic, the Puerto Rico Trench, estimated at 30,000 feet deep while the Florida Straits within this area are approximately 5000 feet deep (â€Å"Bermuda Triangle†). Mysteries in the Bermuda Christopher Columbus – in his journals, he recounts a bizarre experience when his ship ran into the Sargasso Sea. He could see no land in sight for miles and his compass acted strangely. He saw a big meteoric ball fall from the sky before Columbus and his crew saw dancing lights in the horizon.They wandered about in the Carribbean for over a week yet before finally sighting land (â€Å"Bermuda Triangle†). 1974 – Charles Berlitz wrote the book, The Bermuda Triangle. It sold more than 18 million copies and translated into 30 languages. The publication was followed by a documentary by Richard Winer (Hagen, 200 4). The more popular incidents include the following (â€Å"Startling New Secrets†): ? March 6, 1918, the USS Cyclops, a huge collier used to carry coal to facilitate US Navy operations during World War I, with a crew of 306, disappeared en route from Barbados to Virginia.? January 30, 1921, a cargo schooner, the Carroll Deering, was found adrift at Diamond Shoals near North Carolina without a sign of its crew. ? December 5, 1945, five US Navy bombers on a training exercise became disoriented and then disappeared. Search-and-rescue (SAR) operations were unsuccessful, and one of the SAR vessels, a Mariner aircraft, also vanished. ? January 30, 1948, the Star Tiger, a four-engined Tudor IV with 31 people on board vanished on a flight to Bermuda from the Azores.? January 17, 1949, the Star Ariel, another Tudor IV would vanish on the same region with 19 passengers on board. ? October 30, 1954, Flight 441, a U. S. Navy R7V-1 (the military version of a Lockheed Super Constellation) crewed by 42 sailors, disappeared between Patuxent River NAS and Lajes, Azores ? February 3, 1963, the SS Marine Sulphur Queen, vanished en route to Virginia from Texas with a crew of 39, shortly after it radioed its position near Key West, Florida. Three days after, a lifeboat from the tanker was found by Coast Guard searchers but no bodies or wreckage was recovered.? December 22, 1967. A cabin cruiser with the ironic name of Witchcraft disappeared off the Miami coast. These coincidences only fascinated the people even more. Theories Behind the Mysteries Countless theories have been proposed to explain the numerous disappearances that occur in this area (â€Å"The Bermuda Triangle†). ? The Bermuda Triangle is one of the two places on earth that a magnetic ompass point towards true north, a variation of as much as 20 degrees toward the magnetic north.The navigator who does not realize this would find himself in deep trouble. ? The character of the Gulf Stream flowing through the area is swift and turbulent and can quickly erase any evidence of a disaster. ? Dr. Ben Clennell of Leeds University in England theorizes that the high concentration of methane hydrates below the seabed oftentimes escape during events of landslides making any ship floating above sink. ? The Triangle is a portal to another dimension and it opens at certain time intervals

Business Report on Boots Plc - 7804 Words

I have been asked to produce a detailed business report of boots plc. My report will contain: • The objectives, organisational structure and communication channels that operate within the business. • An examination of how these factors interrelates in a way that can affect the success of the business. • An explanation of how quality assurance and control systems help the business to add value to its products. • Consideration of alternative methods of quality assurance and control. • Consideration of how well the business is meeting its objectives • An explanation of the impact of ICT upon the internal and external communications of the business. E1 the classification of the business according to its ownership and an explanation of†¦show more content†¦Disadvantages of a private limited company are that profits have to be shared out between the shareholders and they are more expensive to set up. Public limited company Plc A public limited company sells their shares through the stock exchange. Companies can have a ‘full quotation put ton the stock exchange so their share prices appear on the dealers screens. The main advantage of selling shares on the stock exchange is that large amounts of capital can be raised very quickly. A disadvantage is that a business can be taken over if a large amount of shares are bought in a take-over bid. It also costs a lot to have shares quoted on the stock exchange. To create a public limited company, the directors must apply to the stock exchange council, which will check their accounts. The business which wants to ‘go public will then have to arrange for one of the merchant banks to handle their paperwork. Selling new shares is quite risky as the stock exchange has good and bad days where people want to buy lots of shares or sell lots of shares. 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